Assignment page 104

a.What is the cause of thrashing?
Thrashing is caused by under allocation of the minimum number of pages required by a process, forcing it to continuously page fault.
b:How does the operating system detect thrashing?
The system can detect thrashing by evaluating the level of CPU utilization as compared to the level of multiprogramming.
c:Once thrashing is detcted, what can the operating system do to iliminate it?
It can be eliminated by reducing the level of multiprogramming.

CS 221 assignment 3

1. Explain the following.

a.Multiprogramming. Why is it used?

Multiprogramming is a rudimentary form of parallel processing in which several programs are run at the same time on a uniprocessor. Since there is only one processor, there can be no true simultaneous execution of different programs. Instead, the operating system executes part of one program, then part of another, and so on. To the user it appears that all programs are executing at the same time.

whatis.com

b. Internal fragmentation. How does it occur?

Internal fragmentation occurs when storage is allocated without ever intending to use it. This space is wasted. While this seems foolish, it is often accepted in return for increased efficiency or simplicity. The term "internal" refers to the fact that the unusable storage is inside the allocated region but is not being used.

For example, in many file systems, files always start at the beginning of a sector, because this simplifies organization and makes it easier to grow files. Any space left over between the last byte of the file and the first byte of the next sector is internal fragmentation. Similarly, a program which allocates a single byte of data is often allocated many additional bytes for metadata and alignment. This extra space is also internal fragmentation.
Another common example: English text is often stored with one character in each 8-bit byte even though in standard ASCII encoding the most significant bit of each byte is always zero. The "wasted" bits are internal fragmentation.

Similar problems with leaving reserved resources unused appear in many other areas. For example, IP addresses can only be reserved in blocks of certain sizes, resulting in many IPs that are reserved but not actively used. This is contributing to the IPv4 address shortage.
Unlike other types of fragmentation, internal fragmentation is difficult to reclaim; usually the best way to remove it is with a design change. For example, in dynamic memory allocation, memory pools drastically cut internal fragmentation by spreading the space overhead over a larger number of objects. wikipedia

c. External fragmentation. How does it occur?

External fragmentation is the phenomenon in which free storage becomes divided into many small pieces over time. It is a weakness of certain storage allocation algorithms, occurring when an application allocates and deallocates ("frees") regions of storage of varying sizes, and the allocation algorithm responds by leaving the allocated and deallocated regions interspersed. The result is that, although free storage is available, it is effectively unusable because it is divided into pieces that are too small to satisfy the demands of the application. The term "external" refers to the fact that the unusable storage is outside the allocated regions.

For example, in dynamic memory allocation, a block of 1000 bytes might be requested, but the largest contiguous block of free space, or memory hole, has only 300 bytes. Even if there are ten blocks of 300 bytes of free space, separated by allocated regions, one still cannot allocate the requested block of 1000 bytes, and the allocation request will fail.

External fragmentation also occurs in file systems as many files of different sizes are created, change size, and are deleted. The effect is even worse if a file which is divided into many small pieces is deleted, because this leaves similarly small regions of free space.
wikipedia

d. Compaction. why is it needed?

referred as garbage collectoin or defragmentation performed by operationg system to reclaim fragmented section of the memory space.

e. Relocation. how often should it be performed?

- the process of moving a program from one area of memory to onother or the process of adjusting address reference in aprogram by either software or hardwrae means.

menmory manager relocates program to gather toegether all of the empty blocks and compact them to make one block of memory large enough to accomudate some or all of the jobs waiting to get in.

2.Discribe the major disadvantage for each of the four memory allocation.

The disadvantage of this memory allocation its an overhead process, so that while compaction is being done everything else must wait.

3. Discribe the major disadvantage for each of the four memory allocation.

They could be divided into segments of variable sizes of equal size. Each page, or segment, could be stored wherever there was an empty block best enough to hold it